A scientific study illustrates how dinosaur extinction led to the flourishing of fungi and the evolution of fungus-farming ants 66 million years ago.
This early form of agriculture predated human agricultural practices and has since evolved into complex mutualistic relationships, which are now being studied for their potential in biotechnology. Credit: SciTechDaily.com
Research highlights how the meteor impact that ended the dinosaurs helped spawn the mutualistic relationship between ants and fungi, marking an early form of agriculture long before humans farmed.
The meteor collision that wiped out the dinosaurs 66 million years ago may have initiated a fascinating mutually beneficial association between fungi and ants. The dim conditions caused by the impact fostered the proliferation of fungi that thrive on decaying organic matter, which was plentiful at that time due to widespread plant and animal deaths.
A recent study featured in Science points out that this period provided an ideal chance for the ancestor of certain ant groups to begin nurturing these microorganisms.
An anthill located on a farm in Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil, showcases a fungus garden with a variety of cultivated species and grass leaves. Credit: André Rodrigues/IB-UNESP
Fungal Strains and Genetic Insights
The researcher oversees the project “Collaborative research: Dimensions US-São Paulo: integrating phylogeny, genetics, and chemical ecology to unravel the tangled bank of the multipartite fungus-farming ant symbiosis,” with support from FAPESP under its Research Program on Biodiversity Characterization, Conservation, Restoration, and Sustainable Use (BIOTA) in partnership with the National Science Foundation (NSF) of the U.S.
Lemon leafcutter Atta colombica workers transport leaves to their colony in Gamboa, Panama. Credit: Pepijn W. Kooij/IB-UNESP
The dating was achieved by examining ultraconserved elements (UCEs) within the genomes of 475 fungal Mutualism and Agricultural Origins
Experts on the mutualism between fungi and ants have long contended that the inception of this relationship signifies the origin of agriculture, occurring millions of years before humans began cultivating crops merely 12,000 years ago.
Image magnified a thousand times shows nutritive vesicles (gongylids) produced by the fungus Leucoagaricus gongylophorus, cultivated by the lemon leafcutter (Atta sexdens). Credit: André Rodrigues/IB-UNESP
The research also uncovered the development of a coral fungi ancestor, another group that ants began cultivating 21 million years ago. This fungus is named for its resemblance to miniature coral colonies.
Nutritional Mutualism and Fungal Adaptation
The findings bolster the theory that fungi had already undergone pre-adaptation prior to their cultivation by ants. The authors suggest it is likely that the ancestor of the leafcutter ant community lived close to fungi, possibly residing within colonies or occasionally gathering them for sustenance or their outputs.
Currently, four distinct ant groups nurture four species of fungi. In certain instances, these insects manipulate the growth of the cultivated fungi to produce specific nutrients.
Colony of the species Atta colombica, discovered in Gamboa, Panama. In the center, significantly larger than the workers, is the queen. Credit: Pepijn W. Kooij/IB-UNESP
“In laboratory cultivation, the fungi exhibit the expected form of hyphae. However, within the colony, one of these hyphal types swells, forming structures reminiscent of grape clusters, plentiful in sugars. The exact methods the ants use to achieve this remain unknown,” comments Kooij.
Professor Mauricio Bacci Junior at IB-UNESP, who co-authored the study, believes the origins of fungi cultivation likely arose as an adaptation to nutritional shortages experienced by ants at the time.
The vast spread of fungi throughout what is now the Americas, alongside diminished food options, made those fungi already establishing a relationship with ants far more beneficial when cultivated.
“To sustain itself, the fungus decomposes organic material transported by the ants. In return, the ant absorbs substances produced by the fungus which are unavailable from other sources. It is reminiscent of the fungus serving as the insect's external digestive system,” draws a comparison by the researcher, who also serves as deputy director of the Center for Research on Biodiversity Dynamics and Climate Change (CBioClima), part of the Research, Innovation, and Dissemination Centers (RIDCs) backed by FAPESP.
Agricultural Evolution and Biotechnological Potential
This occurrence undoubtedly facilitated the diversification of fungi, enhancing their efficiency in producing food for ants and breaking down organic matter.
The enzymes generated by fungi cultivated by ants are currently under investigation for their biotechnological prospects, not only in decomposing organic matter but also in addressing other materials, such as plastics.
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Reference: “The coevolution of fungus-ant agriculture” by Ted R. Schultz, Jeffrey Sosa-Calvo, Matthew P. Kweskin, Michael W. Lloyd, Bryn Dentinger, Pepijn W. Kooij, Else C. Vellinga, Stephen A. Rehner, Andre Rodrigues, Quimi V. Montoya, Hermógenes Fernández-Marín, Ana Ješovnik, Tuula Niskanen, Kare Liimatainen, Caio A. Leal-Dutra, Scott E. Solomon, Nicole M. Gerardo, Cameron R. Currie, Mauricio BacciJr., Heraldo L. Vasconcelos, Christian Rabeling, Brant C. Faircloth and Vinson P. Doyle, 3 October 2024, Science
DOI: 10.1126/science.adn7179
From Catastrophe to Cooperation: How the Asteroid That Ended the Dinosaurs Paved the Way for Ant Farming
In a remarkable twist of evolutionary fate, the catastrophic asteroid impact that led to the demise of the dinosaurs approximately 66 million years ago inadvertently set the stage for the rise of an entirely different kind of life: ants. The mass extinction event not only wiped out roughly 75% of Earth's species but also opened ecological niches that allowed for new forms of life to flourish. Among the beneficiaries of this upheaval were the ancestors of modern ants, which thrived in the post-dinosaur landscape.
Prior to the asteroid's impact, large herbivorous dinosaurs dominated terrestrial ecosystems, limiting the opportunities for smaller species. However, as the dust settled and ecosystems began to recover, ants rapidly diversified and adapted, capitalizing on the new environmental conditions. Their ability to form complex social structures and cooperate in large colonies became a pivotal trait that ensured their survival and success.
Today, ants are found on every continent except Antarctica, with over 12,000 species identified and many more yet to be discovered. One fascinating outcome of their success is the burgeoning field of ant farming, an innovative practice where humans cultivate ants for various purposes, including pest control, soil improvement, and even as a food source in certain cultures. This ancient form of agriculture is gaining traction as scientists study the ecological benefits and potential applications of these tiny but industrious creatures.
As we ponder the far-reaching consequences of a single cataclysmic event, it raises an intriguing question: Can we truly appreciate the intricate webs of life that emerge from destruction? What are your thoughts on the idea that such a devastating event could lead to the flourishing of new species and even new agricultural practices? Would you consider ant farming a viable alternative for sustainability, or does the thought of cultivating ants not sit well with you? Join the debate!
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Sheryl Sandberg's Pivotal Moment 6: Navigating Meta's Uncharted Territory
At the Connect conference held on October 29, 2021, Mark Zuckerberg declared that he would change Facebook's name to Meta Platform. “I want Facebook to be recognized as a metaverse company within five years. Our company name now refers to only one product: Facebook. “It cannot represent the various businesses we are currently engaged in, let alone the future of the Metaverse.”
Facebook's Connect Conference, now called Meta, is an annual event related to VR and AR. After Facebook acquired AR device company Oculus VR for $2.3 billion in 2014, it became one of the most important virtual augmented reality-related conferences in San Francisco.
However, the 2021 event had a slightly different character. It was close to Facebook's rebranding event. Above all, Mark Zuckerberg was alone. The 90-minute presentation was conducted by solo dribbling. There was an evaluation that it was “Zuckerberg's one-man show.” There was already no room for Sheryl Sandberg next to Mark Zuckerberg.
In the early days of founding Facebook, there were some things that Mark Zuckerberg could not understand or tolerate. It was said that people want to be a different version of themselves on the Internet than they are in real life. This is a natural thing for ordinary people. It is a natural desire for an ordinary man in real life to want to become a hero in virtual reality. When designing Facebook, other developers thought that users should have multiple identities.
Mark Zuckerberg was adamantly opposed. Rather, I asked a question. Why do people want to be someone other than me? Mark Zuckerberg never seemed to want a virtual me that was different from my real self. In this way, Facebook was designed as a social network service that expands the real me. It may be a bit glorified and exaggerated, but it was an extension of me anyway.
The same goes for the Metaverse designed by Mark Zuckerberg. Mark Zuckerberg transforms into a self-projected avatar and enters the metaverse world. Meta's metaverse is an extension of reality. The Horizon service allows you to build a virtual house. It may be a palace more luxurious than reality. There is no change in the fact that it is my home. Just like on Facebook, on Meta, I am who I am.
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Meta's metaverse is therefore optimized for sharing and expanding one's own experiences. If Facebook showed me what I think and Instagram showed me what I like, then Meta shows me what my soul looks like.
If I decide to be seen as a princess in the metaverse space, then the ghost trapped in the shell of reality is a princess. In the metaverse designed by the creator named Zuckerberg, the important thing is always me. Even when Mark Zuckerberg first introduced the metaverse he designed, it was Mark Zuckerberg. It was me.
Meta's Metaverse is in many ways comparable to Microsoft's Metaverse designed by Satya Nadella. Satya Nadella made Microsoft's Metaverse a virtual space good for collaboration. A representative example is Mesh for Teams, which applies Metaverse to Teams, Microsoft's video conferencing service.
The important thing here is not me, but us. Mesh for Teams can be described as Office 360 in augmented reality in the metaverse. By using Microsoft's HoloLens and accessing Mesh for Teams, almost all work can be done in virtual space. Hololens is a virtual reality device developed by Microsoft, like Meta's Oculus.
Satya Nadella believes that the metaverse can refresh the reality that we find difficult to connect with. Within Microsoft's metaverse, we can collaborate better at work. It is a Satya Nadella-like metaverse that saved Mike Gosoft, which everyone knew only about me, from a burning platform. It is different from Mark Zuckerberg's metaverse.
In Meta, Mark Zuckerberg must create a business model without Sheryl Sandberg. The strategy that Mark Zuckerberg is promoting in Meta, which features me, is an extension of Sheryl Sandberg's advertising strategy. It is an advertisement that stimulates the unconscious desires of users, just as it did on Facebook and Instagram.
There is a high possibility that Meta, which contains my soul, will become a much more destructive advertising platform than Facebook, which contains my thoughts, or Instagram, which contains my life. By adding threads containing my insights, Nananana's empire is being created.
However, there is one powerful disruptor in Mark Zuckerberg's meta. It's Apple. In fact, Apple is the one who forced Meta into a corner to shift the focus of its business from social to Metaverse. The reason that Mark Zuckerberg changed Facebook's name to Meta and started the process of re-founding the company was not because of the revelations of whistleblower Francis Hogan or because Sheryl Sandberg's retreat forced the company to prepare for a new era.
This is because Apple's CEO Tim Cook implemented an app tracking transparency policy starting in April 2021. Starting with the iOS 14 update, Apple mandated the so-called opt-in method, which prevents services such as Facebook from collecting user data without the individual's prior consent. The advertising identifier value for all devices is 0 until the user allows personal information to be tracked. Without access to advertising identifiers, Facebook and Instagram cannot provide personalized advertising. In effect, the business models of Facebook and Instagram created by Sheryl Sandberg have collapsed.
Mark Zuckerberg poured $10 billion into Reality Labs, Meta's metaverse division, in 2021 alone. Reality Labs does not have sales like Facebook or Instagram in the early days. The operating loss recorded by Reality Labs in 2021 amounts to $10.193 billion. It fits perfectly with the 2021 revenue loss that Meta lost due to Apple's app tracking transparency policy.
Reality Labs is simultaneously leading both hardware and software development for Meta, focusing on Oculus. What's important is that the meta is more serious about hardware than ever before. The situation is different from when Facebook Phone was launched and then quickly discontinued. This is because it is no longer possible to make money using personal information stolen through iPhone or Android phones.
Losses due to Apple amounted to 8% of total sales in 2021. After the iOS 14 update, only about 4% of consumers agree to app tracking. In order for Zuckerberg to once again make Meta thrive as a Metaverse advertising kingdom, users must first use Meta's Oculus to roam around. This means that virtual reality glasses should replace smartphones. If you can't solve the hardware problem, you can't even try the software.
Tim Cook even quoted Steve Jobs' quote to defend Apple's app tracking transparency policy. “Developers should stop guessing and check every time whether users want to share their personal information.” The moment Tim Cook, who is famous for being obsessed with security, even touts Steve Jobs' legacy, Sheryl Sandberg's legacy becomes a relic of the past.
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So Sheryl Sandberg left Meta on June 1, 2022. Sheryl Sandberg's exit is the same as Sheryl Sandberg once again drawing the line that she will not do Zuckerberg's homework for Facebook and Instagram.
In 2012, Mark Zuckerberg went on a honeymoon. Sandberg is scheduled to remarry in 2022. Sheryl Sandberg announced her intention to leave office and also revealed her plans to marry Tom Bernthal, with whom she announced her engagement in May 2020. This time it was Sandberg's turn to go on his honeymoon. Sheryl Sandberg married Tom Bernthal in Jackson, Wyoming, on August 20, 2022.
It was written based on character information from Lifeler, an online character library service.
Read people, learn about life, Lifelily
This is Sheryl Sandberg's character story serialized in Crossborder Tech Media's The Milk.
Lifely Originals: Sheryl Sandberg
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SpaceX launches Polaris Dawn astronauts to attempt world's 1st-ever private spacewalk
In a groundbreaking mission, SpaceX launched the Polaris Dawn crew on a journey believed to rewrite the history of private spaceflight. The mission blasted off in the early hours of September 10, marking not just a technological success but possibly changing the face of human spaceflight. The Polaris Dawn mission is a milestone for SpaceX and its ambitious leader, Jared Isaacman, in their plans to conduct the first private spacewalk ever. In this case, when the crew flies higher than any other humans since the Apollo era, a question lingers in the air: whether this privately led mission is a showcase of limitless possibilities opened up by commercial space travel, or whether such activities should remain strictly within the province of government space agencies.
Moderator: Welcome to our debate on the implications of the Polaris Dawn mission, SpaceX's bold attempt to conduct the first-ever private spacewalk. We have two distinguished specialists joining us: Dr. Elaine Carson, a spaceflight enthusiast and advocate, and Dr. Matthew Reid, who has been very critical over the privatization of space exploration. Let's begin with Dr. Carson. How do you view the Polaris Dawn mission?
Dr. Carson: . Elaine Carson (Pro): Thank you; great to be here. It really is out of this world-the Polaris Dawn mission. No, seriously, a quantum leap in technology and in innovative capabilities by the private sector. Jared Isaacman and SpaceX are showing that space will be more accessible and perhaps encourage many others to invest and drive innovation in the space economy. The mission also tests vital new technologies, such as advanced EVA spacesuits developed by SpaceX, which could light the way to future missions beyond Earth's orbit.
Moderator: Dr. Reid, your feelings about private space venture?
Dr. Matthew Reid (Contra): I understand the spirit of innovation, but this is one of those critical sides of space exploration that should not be privatized. For instance, missions such as Polaris Dawn focus more on private interests and ventures than on public or international collaboration. This would be leading toward monopolization in space resources without any form of regulation, which is common in government-run missions. The consequences, rather, will be increased space debris and zeroing regulation, so that all of humanity benefits from these endeavors.
Moderator: Dr. Carson, do you believe the potential risks are outweighed by missions like Polaris Dawn?
Dr. Carson: Absolutely, the benefits far outweigh the risks. History has shown time and again that private sectors drive technology forward much faster than government projects. Accomplishments by SpaceX, such as their reusable rockets, have already brought down costs and opened up space to more users. More importantly, Polaris Dawn is a forerunner of commercial enterprise in this field, bringing about a whole new era in space exploration that can exist alongside governmental ones.
Moderator: Dr. Reid, what kind of mechanism would you put in place for productive cooperation in space exploration by private enterprise and governments?
Dr. Reid: Collaboration is paramount. Strict international regulations on how private missions will be guided are in place to ensure accountability and safety. More importantly, cooperation in private missions can result in more inclusive and better-balanced exploration with government agencies. Essentially, a unified global framework is needed in order to govern the usage of outer space responsibly.
Moderator: Gentlemen, thank you for your thoughts. Evidently, the mission of Polaris Dawn has stirred a very serious debate about space flying's future. And as we further witness space becoming more accessible, it is not only important to consider technological advancements but also regulatory frameworks that protect and share such feats.
SpaceX launches Polaris Dawn astronauts to attempt world's 1st-ever private spacewalk